Functionalist Émile Durkheim Viewed Society As:

Émile Durkheim, a towering figure in the field of sociology, fundamentally viewed society as a complex, interconnected system akin to a living organism. His functionalist perspective emphasized the importance of social structures and institutions in maintaining social order and stability. He wasn't merely interested in describing social phenomena, but in understanding their function – what role they played in the overall health and well-being of the social body. This viewpoint positioned him as a key figure in the development of functionalism, a dominant theoretical perspective in sociology for much of the 20th century.

The Core Tenets of Durkheim's Functionalism

To truly grasp Durkheim's perspective, it's crucial to understand the core tenets of his functionalist approach. These principles guided his research and shaped his understanding of the social world:

• Social Facts: Durkheim argued that sociology should focus on social facts, which are external and coercive forces that shape individual behavior. These facts exist independently of individuals and exert pressure on them to conform to societal norms and expectations. Examples include laws, customs, moral beliefs, and religious practices.
• Social Solidarity: This refers to the degree of integration and unity within a society. Durkheim identified two primary types of social solidarity: mechanical solidarity, based on similarity and shared beliefs, and organic solidarity, based on interdependence and specialization.
• The Importance of Social Institutions: Durkheim believed that social institutions, such as the family, education system, and government, play a vital role in maintaining social order by providing individuals with norms, values, and roles.
• Society as a Moral Force: Durkheim saw society as more than just a collection of individuals. He argued that it is a moral force that shapes individual behavior and provides a sense of meaning and purpose.
• The Study of Social Pathology: Durkheim believed that studying social deviance and dysfunction could provide insights into the normal functioning of society. He argued that crime, for example, is not simply an individual act but a social phenomenon that can serve a function in society by reinforcing social boundaries.

Understanding Social Facts: The Building Blocks of Society

At the heart of Durkheim's functionalist perspective lies the concept of social facts. These are the "things" of sociology, the objective realities that shape human behavior. Durkheim argued that social facts are:

• External to the Individual: They exist independently of any one person. We are born into a world already structured by these facts.
• Coercive: They exert pressure on individuals to conform. We feel the weight of social expectations and the consequences of deviating from them.
• General Throughout a Given Society: They are widely shared and recognized by members of a particular society.

Consider the example of marriage. It is a social fact because it existed before any individual was born, it exerts pressure on people to conform to certain expectations (fidelity, commitment, etc.), and it is a widely recognized institution in most societies. We internalize these social facts through socialization, learning how to behave in socially acceptable ways.

Durkheim believed that by studying social facts, sociologists could uncover the underlying laws and principles that govern social life. He argued that social facts should be explained by other social facts, not by individual psychology or biology. This emphasis on the social realm distinguished sociology from other disciplines and established it as a unique field of study.

Mechanical vs. Organic Solidarity: Two Forms of Social Cohesion

Durkheim identified two distinct types of social solidarity that characterize different types of societies:

Mechanical Solidarity

• Characteristics: Found in traditional, pre-industrial societies. Characterized by a high degree of similarity among individuals. Based on shared beliefs, values, and experiences. Strong collective consciousness, where the individual is largely absorbed into the group.
• Division of Labor: Minimal division of labor. Most people perform similar tasks.
• Law: Repressive law, which emphasizes punishment and retribution for offenses against the collective.
• Example: A small, rural village where everyone knows each other and shares similar values and beliefs.

In societies characterized by mechanical solidarity, social cohesion is maintained through conformity. Individuals feel a strong sense of belonging and are tightly bound to one another through shared traditions and customs. The collective consciousness is dominant, and individual differences are minimized.

Organic Solidarity

• Characteristics: Found in modern, industrial societies. Characterized by a high degree of interdependence and specialization. Based on the division of labor, where individuals perform different tasks and rely on each other for their survival. Weaker collective consciousness, allowing for greater individual expression and diversity.
• Division of Labor: Complex division of labor, with a wide range of specialized occupations.
• Law: Restitutive law, which emphasizes restoring social order and compensating victims of wrongdoing.
• Example: A large, urban city where people come from diverse backgrounds and work in specialized occupations.

In societies characterized by organic solidarity, social cohesion is maintained through interdependence. Individuals are bound to one another not by similarity, but by their reliance on each other for goods and services. The division of labor creates a complex web of relationships, and individuals are more differentiated and autonomous.

Durkheim argued that the transition from mechanical to organic solidarity is a major feature of social evolution. As societies become more complex, the division of labor increases, and social solidarity shifts from being based on similarity to being based on interdependence.

The Role of Social Institutions: Maintaining Order and Stability

Durkheim believed that social institutions are essential for maintaining social order and stability. These institutions provide individuals with the norms, values, and roles they need to function effectively in society. Some of the key social institutions that Durkheim identified include:

• The Family: Provides individuals with their earliest socialization, teaching them basic norms and values.
• The Education System: Transmits knowledge, skills, and cultural values to the next generation.
• The Economy: Organizes the production and distribution of goods and services.
• The Government: Enforces laws, maintains order, and provides for the collective welfare.
• Religion: Provides a shared system of beliefs and rituals that promote social solidarity.

Each of these institutions plays a specific role in maintaining the overall health and well-being of society. When these institutions function effectively, they contribute to social stability and cohesion. However, when they break down or become dysfunctional, they can lead to social problems such as crime, poverty, and social unrest.

Society as a Moral Force: Guiding and Constraining Behavior

Durkheim viewed society as more than just a collection of individuals or a set of institutions. He argued that society is a moral force that shapes individual behavior and provides a sense of meaning and purpose. This moral force is embodied in the collective consciousness, which is the shared beliefs, values, and norms that bind individuals together.

The collective consciousness provides individuals with a sense of belonging and identity. It also sets limits on their behavior, defining what is considered acceptable and unacceptable. Individuals who violate the norms and values of the collective consciousness are subject to social sanctions, such as disapproval, ostracism, or even legal punishment.

Durkheim believed that religion is a particularly important source of moral regulation. He argued that religious rituals and ceremonies serve to reinforce the collective consciousness and promote social solidarity. By participating in these shared activities, individuals reaffirm their commitment to the group and its values.

Anomie: The Breakdown of Social Norms

One of Durkheim's most influential concepts is anomie, which refers to a state of normlessness or social disorganization. Anomie occurs when individuals lack clear guidelines for behavior and experience a sense of meaninglessness and alienation. This can happen during times of rapid social change, economic upheaval, or when traditional social institutions break down.

Durkheim argued that anomie is a major cause of social problems such as crime, suicide, and mental illness. When individuals are no longer integrated into society and lack a sense of purpose, they are more likely to engage in deviant behavior or experience psychological distress.

In his classic study of Suicide, Durkheim identified different types of suicide based on the degree of social integration and regulation. He argued that anomic suicide is more likely to occur in societies characterized by high levels of anomie. This type of suicide is often associated with economic booms or busts, when individuals' expectations are disrupted and they feel a sense of disillusionment.

The Study of Social Pathology: Learning from Dysfunction

Durkheim believed that studying social deviance and dysfunction could provide valuable insights into the normal functioning of society. He argued that crime, for example, is not simply an individual act but a social phenomenon that can serve a function in society by reinforcing social boundaries.

When a crime is committed, it elicits a reaction from society. This reaction, which can range from disapproval to punishment, serves to reaffirm the norms and values that have been violated. By publicly condemning criminal behavior, society reinforces its commitment to these norms and values.

Durkheim also argued that crime can promote social change. By challenging existing norms and values, criminals can force society to re-evaluate its beliefs and practices. In some cases, criminal behavior can lead to the creation of new laws and institutions that better reflect the needs and values of society.

However, Durkheim also recognized that too much crime can be disruptive and destabilizing. A healthy society needs a certain amount of deviance to function properly, but it also needs to maintain a reasonable level of social order.

Criticisms of Durkheim's Functionalism

While Durkheim's functionalist perspective has been highly influential, it has also been subject to criticism. Some of the main criticisms include:

• Overemphasis on Social Order: Critics argue that Durkheim's focus on social order and stability leads him to neglect the role of conflict and social change.
• Conservative Bias: Some argue that functionalism has a conservative bias because it tends to support the status quo and resist radical social change.
• Teleological Explanations: Critics argue that functionalism sometimes relies on teleological explanations, which explain social phenomena in terms of their presumed purposes or functions. This can be problematic because it implies that society has a conscious will or purpose.
• Difficulty in Identifying Functions: It can be difficult to identify the true functions of social institutions and practices. What appears to be functional for one group may be dysfunctional for another.
• Neglect of Individual Agency: Critics argue that functionalism tends to downplay the role of individual agency, portraying individuals as passive recipients of social forces.

Despite these criticisms, Durkheim's functionalist perspective remains a valuable tool for understanding the social world. It provides a framework for analyzing the relationships between social structures, institutions, and individual behavior.

Durkheim's Enduring Legacy

Émile Durkheim's contributions to sociology are immense and continue to resonate today. His emphasis on social facts, social solidarity, and the importance of social institutions laid the foundation for the development of sociology as a scientific discipline. His work on anomie and suicide remains highly influential, and his functionalist perspective continues to be a valuable tool for understanding the complexities of social life.

Durkheim's legacy extends beyond the academic realm. His ideas have influenced social policy and have been used to address social problems such as crime, poverty, and inequality. By emphasizing the importance of social integration and regulation, Durkheim provided a framework for creating more just and equitable societies.

In conclusion, Émile Durkheim viewed society as a complex, interconnected system with a focus on social structures and institutions in maintaining social order. His work provided a foundation for understanding how societies function and the forces that shape human behavior. His emphasis on social facts, social solidarity, and the importance of social institutions continues to be relevant in today's world. While his theories have been subject to criticism, his contributions to the field of sociology are undeniable, solidifying his place as one of the most influential sociologists of all time.